By Instituting Civil Service Examinations For Entrance Into The Government Bureaucracy, The Song?

Vocal DYNASTY Bureaucracy

Chinese official

"The founders of the Song dynasty built an constructive centralized bureaucracy staffed with civilian scholar-officials. Regional military governors and their supporters were replaced by centrally appointed officials. This organization of civilian rule led to a greater concentration of power in the emperor and his palace bureaucracy than had been achieved in the previous dynasties. The northern Song dynasty emphasized "orderly and virtuous governance, achieved largely through efficient bureaucracy staffed by mandarins who passed the rigorous state examinations...the revival of Confucian teaching gave a particularly stiff moral flavor to the dynasty."

Vocal rule featured a bureaucratic ruling grade that derived its legitimacy from philosophical orthodoxy and an economic system that involved an increasingly active gratis peasantry interacting with large urban commercial, manufacturing and administrative centers. Every bit was true with the dynasties the Song Dynasty was substantially ruled by an elite hierarchy called through competitive examinations on classic Confucian texts. Some 20,000 mandarins were responsible for governing an empire with more 100 meg people. Progress was hampered somewhat by strong central control. Fearing loss of authority, the bureaucracies reigned in the power of merchants with strict regulations.

Wolfram Eberhard wrote in "A History of China": "The Song emperor, like the rulers of the transition period, had gained the throne by his personal abilities equally military leader; in fact, he had been made emperor past his soldiers every bit had happened to so many emperors in afterwards Imperial Rome. For the next 300 years we observe a modify in the position of the emperor. On the 1 paw, if he was active and intelligent enough, he exercised much more personal influence than the rulers of the Middle Ages. On the other hand, at the same time, the emperors were much closer to their ministers every bit before. Nosotros hear of ministers who patted the ruler on the shoulders when they retired from an audience; another ane fell asleep on the emperor's knee and was not punished for this familiarity. The emperor was called "kuan-chia" (Administrator) and even called himself so. And in the early twelfth century an emperor stated "I do not regard the empire every bit my personal property; my job is to guide the people". Financially-minded equally the Song dynasty was, the cost of the performance of the palace was calculated, and then that the emperor had a budget: in 1068 the salaries of all officials in the majuscule amounted to 40,000 strings of money per month, the armies 100,000, and the emperor's ordinary monthly budget was 70,000 strings. For festivals, purple birthdays, weddings and burials extra allowances were made. Thus, the Vocal rulers may be called "moderate absolutists" and not despots. [Source: "A History of Red china" past Wolfram Eberhard, 1951, University of California, Berkeley]

"Ane of the first acts of the new Song emperor, in 963, was a central reorganization of the administration of the country. The old system of a ceremonious administration and a military assistants independent of it was brought to an end and the whole assistants of the country placed in the hands of civil officials. The gentry welcomed this measure and gave it full support, considering it enabled the influence of the gentry to grow and removed the fear of competition from the military, some of whom did not belong by birth to the gentry.

Good Websites and Sources on the Vocal Dynasty: Asia for Educators, Columbia University, Primary Sources with DBQs, afe.easia.columbia.edu ; Wikipedia Wikipedia ; San.brook.org san.beck.org ; Tang Dynasty: Wikipedia ; Google Volume: Red china's Golden Age: Everday Life in the Tang Dynasty by Charles Benn books.google.com/books; Chinese History: Chinese Text Project ctext.org ; 3) Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization depts.washington.edu ; Chaos Group of University of Maryland chaos.umd.edu/history/toc ; 2) WWW VL: History Prc vlib.iue.it/history/asia ; three) Wikipedia article on the History of China Wikipedia Books: "Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty"by Charles Benn, Greenwood Printing, 2002; "Cambridge History of People's republic of china" Vol. 3 (Cambridge University Press); "The Civilization and Civilization of China", a massive, multi-volume series, (Yale Academy Press); "Chronicle of the Chinese Emperor" past Ann Paludan.

Scholar-Officials During the Song Dynasty

Co-ordinate to Columbia University'southward Asia for Educators: "The Song menstruation saw the total flowering of ane of the almost distinctive features of Chinese culture — the scholar-official class certified through highly competitive civil service examinations. Almost scholars came from the landholding class, just they caused prestige from their learning and political clout by serving in part. In a society in which most people were illiterate, scholar-officials stood out by virtue of their reading and writing skills. Their Confucian pedagogy encouraged them to aspire for government service, but also to speak upwardly when they thought others were pursuing the wrong course, making them courageous critics of power. [Source: Asia for Educators, Columbia University, Consultants Patricia Ebrey and Conrad Schirokauer afe.easia.columbia.edu/song ]

"The officials of the Song dynasty approached the task of government with the inspiration of a reinvigorated Confucianism, which historians refer to as "Neo-Confucianism." Equally with whatsoever group of scholars and officials, different individuals had different understandings of just what concrete measures would best realize the moral ideals articulated in the Analects and Mencius. Such disagreements could be quite serious and could make or unmake careers. [Source: Asia for Educators, Columbia University, Primary Sources with DBQs, afe.easia.columbia.edu ]

Success as a scholar-official was often defined in terms of knowledge on the Five Confucian Classics — 1) Classic of Verse (Shijing); 2) Classic of History (Shujing); 3) Classic of Changes (Yijing); 4) Record of Rites (Liji); and five) Chronicles of the Spring and Autumn Period (Chunqiu)— and The Four Books — 1) The Not bad Learning (Daxue); 2) The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong); three) The Analects of Confucius (Lunyu); and 4) The Mencius (Mengzi).

Neo-Confucianism in the Song Period

Neo-Confucianist Zhou Dunyi

According to Columbia University's Asia for Educators: " There was a vigorous revival of Confucianism in the Song period. Confucian teachings were primal to the civil service examination organization, the identity of the scholar-official class, the family system, and political discourse. Confucianism had naturally changed over the centuries since the time of Confucius (ca. 500 B.C.). Confucius's own teachings, recorded by his followers in "The Analects", were all the same a central element, as were the texts that came to exist called the Confucian classics, which included early poetry, historical records, moral and ritual injunctions, and a divination manual. But the issues stressed by Confucian teachers changed as Confucianism became closely associated with the state from about 100 B.C. on, and as it had to face competition from Buddhism, from the second century CE onward. Confucian teachers responded to the claiming of Buddhist metaphysics by developing their own account of the natural and human world. [Source: Asia for Educators, Columbia Academy, Consultants Patricia Ebrey and Conrad Schirokauer afe.easia.columbia.edu/song ]

"With roots in the late Tang dynasty, the Confucian revival flourished in the Northern and Southern Song periods and continued in the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties that followed. The revived Confucianism of the Song period (oftentimes chosen Neo-Confucianism) emphasized self-tillage as a path not only to self-fulfillment but to the germination of a virtuous and harmonious society and state.

"The revival of Confucianism in Song times was accomplished by teachers and scholar-officials who gave Confucian teachings new relevance. Scholar-officials of the Vocal such every bit Fan Zhongyan (989-1052) and Sima Guang (1019-1086) provided compelling examples of the man who put service to the state above his personal involvement."

Vocal Dynasty Scholar-Official Examinations

Regal exam

According to Columbia University's Asia for Educators: "Since the Sui Dynasty (581-617), it had been possible to become a government official by passing a serial of written examinations. It was just in the Song, however, that the exam organisation came to exist considered the normal ladder to success. From the point of view of the early Song emperors, the purpose of the civil service examinations was to depict men with literary educations into the authorities to counter the authority of military men. So long as the system identified men who would brand good officials, it did not matter much if some talented people were missed. [Source: Asia for Educators, Columbia University, Consultants Patricia Ebrey and Conrad Schirokauer afe.easia.columbia.edu/song ]

Dr. Robert Eno of Indiana University wrote: " Past the time of the Song, the civil service test system had become so central to the Chinese state that it was, in many was, the cultural focus of all who aspired to success. Even the growing merchant class, which was, past policy, banned from participating in the exams because their profession, based on self-serving "greed" for turn a profit, was considered intrinsically immoral, looked for ways to take some of their sons shed the merchant grade designation in guild that the family could go members of the most prestigious form in society: the official class. [Source: Robert Eno, Indiana Academy /+/ ]

Co-ordinate to Asia for Educators: "In Vocal times examination success came to behave such prestige that the number of men inbound each competition grew steadily, from fewer than thirty,000 early in the dynasty, to near 400,000 by the dynasty's end. Because the number of available posts did non change, a candidate'south chances of passing plummeted, reaching as low every bit one in 333 in some prefectures. Men often took the examinations several times, and were on average a little over 30 when they succeeded. The great bulk of those who devoted years to preparing for the exams, yet, never became officials."

Song Dynasty Examination System

ranking list of the Jinshi exam

Dr. Eno wrote: "Although the intricacies of the examination system were countless, its basic structure was elementary. Throughout the period from nearly 589 to 1905, the central imperial government held massive exams at the various capitals of Cathay every three years. Those who performed best on these exams earned the right to receive government positions; the specific position was determined through a combination of exam scores, personal influence, and available openings. To select the thousands of young men (and men only) who could compete for these exams, lower level tests were administered annually at provincial and canton levels. The aspiring beau could expect to spend several years moving upward through this pyramid of exams..that is, assuming that he was successful at the lower levels: about were not. [Source: Robert Eno, Indiana University /+/ ]

Co-ordinate to Columbia University's Asia for Educators: ""From the point of view of those taking the examinations fairness was crucial. They wanted to be assured that everyone was given an equal risk and the examiners did non favor those they knew. To increase their confidence in the objectivity of the examiners, the Song government decided to supercede candidates' names with numbers and had clerks recopy each exam then that the handwriting could non be recognized. [Source: Asia for Educators, Columbia Academy, Consultants Patricia Ebrey and Conrad Schirokauer afe.easia.columbia.edu/vocal ]

According to Asia for Educators: "Scholars in and out of the regime regularly debated what should exist asked on the examinations, just everyone agreed that i element should be control of Confucian texts. Candidates were usually asked to discuss policy bug, but the examinations tested general education more than knowledge of government laws and regulations. Candidates even had to write poetry in specified forms. To prepare for the examinations, men would memorize the Confucian classics in order to be able to recognize even the most obscure passages.

Preparation for the Scholar-Official Examinations

Dr. Eno wrote: "Preparation for the tests began at an early age and could continue for many years; in some cases, men spent their entire lives attempting to pass the exams (which could be taken any number of times). Successful candidates were rewarded with great prestige. Their families could boast that they belonged to the sole recognized nation-wide elite, and were permitted to fly a special flag at the gates of their family compounds. They could expect that their successful son would bring to the family all the benefits that Confucian education, public service, and deeply entrenched customs of blackmail could provide. Although the examinations were open up to any adult male, regardless of birth, in practice families whose members had already accomplished high rank through the examinations were at a tremendous advantage in preparing the next generation for success. It was such families who commonly possessed the resources that allowed them to excuse their children from all economic contributions to the household in order that they might spend a dozen years or more devoting themselves solely to the study of examination texts. [Source: Robert Eno, Indiana Academy /+/ ]

"There were a number of dissimilar types of examination tracks open to young men. The most important was the Confucian civil service test, which gave men access to the highest level of government posts. These exams were based on a thorough mastery of the extensive corpus of Confucian classical texts, with their voluminous commentaries, of political essays equanimous by exemplary Confucians of the post-Classical era, and of the arts of poesy, calligraphy, and essay composition that marked one as a cultivated member of the Chinese intellectual elite. /+/

"The intensity of this educational process can be suggested by a quantitative measure concerning only the matter of Confucian classical texts. In addition to a very wide knowledge of the texts and their commentaries, exam candidates were expected to know a certain core group of these texts by centre. The texts that needed to exist memorized included the post-obit grouping, listed below with the full number of words, or Chinese characters, that they include:
The Analects.................................. xi,705
The Mencius.................................. 34,685
The Yijing..................................... 24,107
The Book of Documents................. 25,700
The Volume of Songs........................ 39,234
The Volume of Rites........................... 99,010
The Zuozhuan................................ 196,845

The total comes to well over 400,000 words, roughly the equivalent of memorizing a book of 1,000 pages word-perfect. And this was just for starters! A never catastrophe stream of commentaries, histories, poetry and and so forth would demand unceasing attention for all the years of a student'south youth, and grooming for the highly artificial literary styles demanded by ossified examination formats ensured that when a student wasn't memorizing texts, he was trying to primary poetic rhyme schemes or baroque essay formats that would please the critical heart of future examiners." /+/

Exam takers

Social Consequences of the Examination Curriculum

Dr. Eno wrote: " The imperative of rote learning that permeated the education of Chinese youths was symptomatic of the disciplinarian character of the entire system of Confucian didactics. Although students read the "Analects" of Confucius and heard him land plainly at that place that he was not "one who studied much and memorized what he had studied," and saw that Confucius challenged the legitimacy of virtually every power holder of his day, the overall thrust of Confucianism, as presented to young boys, stressed the primacy of the 3 Bonds: obedience to father, elders, and rulers. This was a principal lesson instilled in every child aspiring to become a member of the ruling class of Cathay, and although a significant number of men were able to overcome this call to political docility in their maturity, the overall cast it leant to the bureaucratic regime of Red china was a loftier tolerance for imperial autocracy and fear of innovation. [Source: Robert Eno, Indiana University /+/ ]

"This tendency undermined one of the most progressive features of the test system..the fact that the institution of government appointment through examination made access to wealth and power dependent upon intellectual merit rather than on the whim of the ruler or personal connections at courtroom. The government system of Prc is ofttimes referred to as a "meritocracy," and this is i of China's most historic glories. However, the intellectual "merit" that earned young men promotion was not necessarily the type of creative or independent achievement that we would tend to deem appropriate for the highest levels of public responsibility. /+/

"The intensity of textual study that was required to rise from the everyman educational levels to candidacy for the examinations was then great that it formed an effective barrier to virtually children. In some cases, this was only a matter of intellectual talent or an ability to settle downwardly and study 60 minutes after hour, year subsequently yr (not a quality we associate with children). More often, it was simply a thing of economics. Only a small percent of the households of People's republic of china could beget to spare a son to full.time report for the entire period of his life at home. This fact worked against another of the most progressive features of the test organisation..its openness. In theory, with only a few exceptions (such every bit the exclusion of merchant families from candidacy during certain periods), social mobility through competitive examination was available to the sons of all families, down to the lowliest peasants. While it is true that talented sons of impoverished families somehow scrimped their style through to expertise and high rank oft enough to maintain the meaningfulness of the examination organisation'southward egalitarian hope, the great majority of successful candidates always came from privileged families in the wealthiest regions of Prc. /+/

Exams and the Confucian Esprit de Corps

Dr. Eno wrote: " One of the unique features of Chinese society that resulted from the exam system was the fact that members of the ruling bureaucracy from the 6th century on shared a common feel of dandy intensity that formed an important bond amid them. While in many traditional societies, members of a single generation might share sure sorts of military training or experiences, or in smaller social groups might undergo some other blazon of rite of initiation, Cathay was unique among traditional cultures in subjecting its large governing aristocracy to an intellectual initiation such equally the exam system. [Source: Robert Eno, Indiana University /+/ ]

"Every three years, immature men of promise would flock to the uppercase urban center, discover lodging in that sophisticated and strange place, and come across hundreds of other young men from all parts of the empire similarly displaced in the hope of lifelong advancement. During the period leading upwards to the exams, candidates, who were often on their own for the showtime time in their lives, would form intense friendships, friendships which might later form a network of government contacts. Many features of Chinese political history are all-time explained but after one has examined lists of triennial examination candidates and discovered which political actors were linked by comradeship dating to their examination days. Moreover, test graduates besides formed important relationships with their examiners, and men who performed outstandingly on the exams could expect that their examiners would get lifelong patrons who would serve equally surrogate fathers inside the Confucian bureaucracy. /+/

Exam cells

"The function of the exams equally a socializing experience was enhanced by the exhausting nature of the metropolitan tests. The entire process stretched over eight days, and was permeated by elaborate ritual ceremonies. The examinees spent days at a time locked in tiny examination cells which stretched over several acres in prison-similar rows, and were expected to write all mean solar day and all nighttime, squinting under the light of their cubicle candles. /+/

"Given the stress of these terrible conditions, a rich trunk of folklore grew around the exams, reinforcing their bear upon upon society and the men who had to endure them. Candidates who entered their cells had heard how the ghosts of failed candidates haunted the testing grounds in the night, and it was not unknown for men's courage to suspension; sometimes a hapless candidate would be found hanging in his cell at dawn, his undistinguished exam paper left incomplete. /+/

Educational activity and Governmental Responsibility

Dr. Eno wrote: " Perhaps the greatest irony of the civil service examination arrangement in China is that in many respects, despite the praiseworthy principle of appointment past competitive examination, the system was defective because the exams tested students for the wrong skills. It was a fundamental tenet of the time that mastery of Confucian moral texts, of poetic forms, and of the rhetoric of approved commentary uniquely equipped a human being to govern others. To us, it seems cocky-evident that this is not true. [Source: Robert Eno, Indiana Academy /+/ ]

"Successful graduates of the exam organization faced certain immediate issues to which they were ill suited to respond. Graduates were oftentimes posted to low level positions in the provinces where they causeless duties at the level of the county magistrate. There, they were responsible for such duties every bit tax collection, h2o conservation, agricultural enhancement, legal administration, and management of their ain county offices, called "yamen". Typically, they faced certain handicaps. First of all, their jurisdictions generally extended over populations of perhaps xl to fifty thousand people, and they were supplied with no assistance from the primal government. Magistrates were responsible for hiring "yamen" staff from local people. Because there was a "dominion of avoidance" that ensured that no official would e'er exist appointed to a post in his home district (to avoid issues of favoritism), a new officer from the capital would exist entirely unfamiliar with the population from which he had to select his administration. Frequently, when young men were posted far from their domicile counties, they were not even able to understand the local dialects of the people they governed! Moreover, the upkeep of a magistrate was a very express one..his bacon was modest and he was provided with almost no discretionary funds. /+/

Chinese official weighing out rice for prisoners

"Basically, immature men fresh from their Confucian studies were completely untrained in the skills that would allow them to succeed nether such conditions unless they had received informal instruction from family members or acquaintances who had been immersed in regime. It was quite common for such men to govern incompetently. Some resorted to brutal authoritarian measures, others wearied themselves issuing moral proclamations urging their people to comport properly (not a very effective strategy). Nigh often, magistrates fell under the influence of powerful local families, who provided them with "officers" who were skilled in using compulsion to extract taxes from peasants and confessions from "criminals." By relying on such local bullies, a magistrate could ensure that he could forrad to the central government the revenues the emperor demanded and that he could submit records of court proceedings demonstrating his sagely ability to bring the guilty to justice and go along lodge in his district. Inevitably, such patterns of conduct likewise involved habits of bribery and other forms of corruption that were owned in the Chinese political organization (and remain and so today). /+/

"Periodically, there were reform initiatives that proposed to make the contents of the exams more relevant to the applied skills necessary for authorities. But these movements were rarely successful. The men who occupied high office and served as the examiners of the next generation had invested their entire identities in the educational activity of their youth..they were non likely to corroborate of any radical change in standards or content to the exams. In most cases, the most revolutionary changes but involved the authorization of a more "modern" or pragmatically oriented set of commentaries to the Confucian classics than those that had been employed previously. While in some cases this might have immune examiners to give added weight to answers that suggested some grasp of the intricacies of practical governance, this was not always the result. The fourteenth century certification of the commentaries of the peachy Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu 11's as orthodox resulted in the opposite effect. Zhu 11 was a brilliant metaphysician..his theories of the creation and its relation to man's ethical tendencies represent a wonderful case of philosophical imagination – but when successful candidates sought to apply Zhu's cosmic theories of Heavenly Principle, fabric force, and the moral intuitions of the sage middle to the issues of tax collection, flood command, and militia organization, they sometimes found that he was a little sketchy on the details. /+/

Famous Song Dynasty Scholar-Officials

Song officials such as Fan Zhongyan (989-1052), Su Shi (1037-1101, likewise known by his pen name, Su Dongpo), and Wang Anshi (1021-1086) worked to use Confucian principles to the applied tasks of governing. Su Shi had a long career every bit a regime official in the Northern Song. Twice he was exiled for his sharp criticisms of royal policy. Su is also one of the near noted poets of the Northern Song menses. Fan Zhongyan was a prominent statesman, strategist, educator, and writer of the Northern Song Dynasty.

Wang Anshi

According to Columbia University'southward Asia for Educators: "Wang Anshi was a noted scholar and official. He distinguished himself during a long term of service as a country magistrate. In 1068, the young Shenzong Emperor (r. 1068.1085), then xx years former, appointed Wang Anshi equally Chief Councilor and charged him with conveying out a thorough-going reform of the empire'due south finances, administration, education, and military. The intention was to address a serious problem: declining tax revenue and mounting government expenses, including the huge and growing cost of maintaining a big standing army. Wang Anshi proposed a series of reforms, including the "Crop Loans Measure out" discussed in the memorial beneath. The reforms were carried out. [Source: Asia for Educators, Columbia University, Primary Sources with DBQs, afe.easia.columbia.edu ]

The Southern Song philosopher and scholar Zhu Xi (1130-1200) was very influential in the Confucian revival of the fourth dimension. Known for his synthesis of Neo-Confucian philosophy, he wrote commentaries to the 4 Books of the Confucian tradition and emphasized the Four Books as a basis for Confucian learning and the ceremonious service examinations. Sima Guang (1019-1086) was a historian and high-ranking official of the Northern Song best known compiling his monumental 294-chapter history of China, entitled Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance (Zizhi tongjian).

Run across Carve up Commodity WANG ANSHI, HIS REFORMS AND HIS BATTLE WITH SIMA GUANG

Book: "A Compilation of Anecdotes of Sung Personalities," translated by Chu Djang and Jane C. Djang (St. John's University Press, 1989)]

Zhu Xi

Zhu Eleven (1130-1200) was the most influential Neo-Confucian philosopher. His synthesis of Confucian idea and Buddhist, Taoist, and other ideas into Neo-Confucianism became the official imperial credo from late Song times to the late nineteenth century. As incorporated into the examination system, Zhu Eleven'southward philosophy evolved into a rigid official creed, which stressed the 1-sided obligations of obedience and compliance of subject to ruler, child to father, wife to husband, and younger brother to elder blood brother. The effect was to inhibit the societal development of premodern China, resulting both in many generations of political, social, and spiritual stability and in a slowness of cultural and institutional change up to the nineteenth century. Neo-Confucian doctrines also came to play the dominant role in the intellectual life of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. [Source: Library of Congress]

Zhu Xi was born in Nanping, Fujian. He afterwards resided in Kaoting, Jianyang in Fujian. His ancestors came from Wuyuan, Jiangxi. He had manner names Yuanhui and Zhonghui; the sobriquets Huian, Huiweng, and Tun- weng. After in his life he was besides referred to as Master Ziyang, the Ill Man of Cangzhou and Chief Kaoting. He is respectfully referred to by posterity as "Zhuzi". Zhu 11 was very influential in the Confucian revival of his fourth dimension. He spent his entire career pursuing an appetite of establishing a new order in China and wrote commentaries to the Four Books of the Confucian tradition and emphasized the Iv Books as a basis for Confucian learning and the civil service examinations. Zhu Xi was also active in the theory and practise of education and in the compiling of a practical transmission of family ritual. Zhu Eleven'southward synthesis was accustomed every bit the orthodox interpretation of Confucianism in the later Ming and Qing dynasties, as well as in other Due east Asian countries.

Zhu Xi

During his lifetime Zhu Xi studied a great variety of fields; in add-on to Confucianism, he had besides written extensively on philosophy, ethics, history, political science, philology and philological theory. His youngest son, Zhu Zai, compiled his treatises and edited them to become the The Literary Collection of Zhu Xi., The Literary Collection of Zhu 11 comprises of 100 volumes and was compiled during the late of Ningzong Emperor and the early on of Lizong Emperor.

Dr. Eno wrote: "Zhu Xi was a brilliant metaphysician..his theories of the cosmos and its relation to man's ethical tendencies correspond a wonderful example of philosophical imagination – but when successful candidates sought to apply Zhu's catholic theories of Heavenly Principle, material force, and the moral intuitions of the sage eye to the issues of tax collection, flood control, and militia organization, they sometimes institute that he was a trivial sketchy on the details." [Source: Robert Eno, Indiana University /+/ ]

National Palace Museum, Taipei description of the calligraphy past Zhu Eleven in the "Alphabetic character on Regime Affairs" (album foliage, ink on paper, 33.3 x 47.eight centimeters): Zhu Xi was excited to hear that Emperor Xiaozong in his later years wanted to recruit Neo-Confucian scholars to reform the government, only unfortunately the emperor passed away not long afterward reforms had begun, bringing them to an sharp end. \=/ This letter was written with swell speed and force, existence composed on Zhu Xi's way to the capital after leaving office as Ambassador of Tanzhou (modern Changsha, Hunan) in the eighth month of 1194. The contents are directed to a subordinate in dealing with government matters in Tanzhou. The first passage mentions Zhu's sorrow at "national mourning," referring to the death of Xiaozong in the sixth month of that year. But with Emperor Ningzong assuming the throne in the seventh calendar month, Zhu had the opportunity to teach at court, immediately bringing him great joy. [Source: National Palace Museum, Taipei \=/ ]

Four Books of Zhu Xi

Zhu Xi'south Commentaries on the 4 Classics

According to the National Palace Museum, Taipei: " The Four Books, with a Collection of Comments and comprises of one book of "Chapters from The Great Learning", ten volumes of "Compilations of The Analects of Confucius", seven volumes of "Compilations of Mencius", and i book of "Capacity from Doctrine of the Mean". [Source: National Palace Museum, Taipei \=/ ]

"The Not bad Learning and Doctrine of the Mean were originally chapters from The Classics of Rites, and were singled out and separately discussed merely from Song Dynasty. The title The Four Books was given by Zhu Xi, who separated the classics from the biographies in The Keen Learning, and also renumbered the chapters and supplemented missing sections from Doctrine of the Mean, referring to them as "Capacity". \=/

"The Analects of Confucius and Mencius were compilations of the various masters, and were therefore referred to as "Compilations". The original compilation placed the greatest emphasis on The Great Learning, followed by The Analects of Confucius, and then Mencius and Doctrine of the Mean, indicating the order of learning. The Four Books, with a Collection of Comments reflects Zhu Xi's scholarly style, carefully because each and every sentence, referring to and combining accounts past other scholars, placing emphasis on elucidation of logic and annotating his ain opinions. The main theme of Capacity from The Great Learning is an "inquiring mind", describing the learning process of "finding the righteous path in everything". \=/

"Zhu Eleven had devoted his life to Compilations of the Four Books, and not only has a unique position and influence in the Neo-Confucianism, he had also included Mencius as one of the classics. Together with The Analects of Confucius, Erya: a Dictionary, The Book of Filial Piety and the "Nine Classics" from the Tang Dynasty, these now grade the official "Xiii Classics. The Four Books was a milestone in the history of Chinese literary classics." \=/

Iii Perfections and Scholar-Official Painting

According to Columbia Academy'southward Asia for Educators: " The life of the educated man involved more study for the ceremonious service examinations and service in part. Many took to refined pursuits such every bit collecting antiques or erstwhile books and practicing the arts — peculiarly poesy writing, calligraphy, and painting ("the three perfections"). For many individuals these interests overshadowed any philosophical, political, or economic concerns; others institute in them occasional outlets for artistic action and aesthetic pleasure. [Source: Asia for Educators, Columbia University, Consultants Patricia Ebrey and Conrad Schirokauer afe.easia.columbia.edu/song ]

Su Shi

In the Vocal period the engagement of the aristocracy with the arts led to extraordinary achievement in calligraphy and painting, particularly landscape painting. But even more people were involved as connoisseurs. A large share of the informal social life of upper-class men was centered on these refined pastimes, equally they gathered to etch or criticize poetry, to view each other'southward treasures, or to patronize young talents.

Patricia Buckley Ebrey of the University of Washington wrote: "During the eye of the Northern Song scholars began to accept upward painting as 1 of the arts of the gentleman, viewing it as comparable to verse and calligraphy as means for self expression. Brushwork in painting, by analogy to brushwork in calligraphy, was believed to express a person's moral grapheme. [Source: Patricia Buckley Ebrey, University of Washington, depts.washington.edu/chinaciv /=]

"The scholars who took up painting generally preferred to use more than individualistic and less refined styles of brushwork. These styles were relatively easier to chief by those already familiar with the brush from calligraphy, and did not crave the years of exacting training needed to succeed as a professional or courtroom creative person. /=\

"The eminent poet and statesman Su Shi (1037-1101) explicitly rejected the attempt to capture appearance every bit below the scholar. Paintings should be understated, not flashy. His painting of Stone and Erstwhile Tree, executed with a dry castor, exhibits rough qualities and does not aim at pleasance. The painting is more than alike to an practise aiming to meliorate and develop calligraphic skill than the sorts of paintings done past gimmicky courtroom painters. Emphasizing subjectivity, Su Shi said that painting and poesy share a single goal, that of effortless skill. /=\

"Scholar painters were not necessarily amateur painters, and many scholars painted in highly polished styles. This was particularly true in the case of paintings of people and animals, where scholar-painters developed the utilise of the sparse line cartoon only did not in any real sense avoid "class likeness" or strive for awkwardness, the way landscapists oft did. One of the offset literati to excel as a painter of people and animals was Li Konglin in the tardily Northern Song. A friend of Su Shi and other eminent men of the period, he also painted landscapes and collected both paintings and ancient bronzes and jades. Figures done with a sparse line, rather than a modulated 1, were considered plainer and more suitable for scholar painters." /=\

Fan Zhongyan: Prominent Scholar-Official-Poet

Fan Zhongyan (989-1052) was a prominent Chinese statesman, strategist, educator and writer of the Northern Vocal Dynasty. Wang Ping wrote on CCTV.com: "He believed that the shortage of talented people was the major problem of the country, then instruction should be developed vigorously to train such people. Wherever he went, he made painstaking efforts to run schools. He founded the well-known Suzhou Prefectural School. Thanks to his pioneering endeavours, a good many talented scholars came to the fore during the Song and the ensuing dynasties. [Source:Wang Ping, CCTV.com, April 6, 2004 ~]

"Fan Zhongyan was one of the outstanding writers of poetry and prose during the Song Dynasty. "On Yueyang Belfry" was his representative work. The well-known essay was not an elaborate portrayal of the tower alone. Information technology was a delineation of the vast scene of the surrounding Dongting Lake, then a description of the mentality of banished officials and poets, and finally an elevation to a higher aeroplane of philosophy. "1 should exist the commencement to bear hardships and the concluding to enjoy comforts," is a well-known remark past made Fan Zhongyan that has frequently been repeated over the centuries. ~

Fan Zhongyan

"Fan Zhongyan was born in Wuxian County, Suzhou in nowadays-day Jiangsu Province in 989. When he was a kid, his father died and his mother married another man. He was poor, simply he learned diligently. At the age of 26, he became a successful candidate in the highest imperial examination and began his long official career. He was e'er anxious nearly the rise and fall of the nation and the joys and sorrows of the people.~

"Xixi, Taizhou was a modest boondocks on the coast of Jiangsu. The land was fertile and products were plentiful. Equally the waves lashed the shore, the land turned saline and alkaline. The local people became destitute and homeless. When he served every bit the magistrate of Xinghua, Fan Zhongyan encouraged the local people to build a breakwater dozens of kilometres long. The people returned to their homeland and called the breakwater "Lord Fan Embankment". ~

"At the beginning of the 11th century, troops of Yuanhao, King of the Western Xia regime, incessantly harassed the northwest border of the Northern Song Dynasty, causing serious losses of the people's lives and belongings. The troops of the Vocal Dynasty suffered one defeat later on another. Fan Zhongyan was appointed the deputy military commissioner of Shaanxi. He displayed outstanding military machine talent and followed a policy of national hold. A peace treaty was signed between the Western Xia authorities and the Northern Song Dynasty. ~

"After the war, Fan Zhongyan was transferred to the upper-case letter and appointed a participant in determining governmental matters. In 1043, the third twelvemonth of the reign of Qingli, Emperor Renzong granted an audience to his ministers, seeking their opinions on major policies. Fan Zhongyan proposed a reform in the administration of local officials and 9 other reforms. Historically they were known as "Qingli New Policies". The New Policies failed in nigh a year because of opposition from conservative officials. Fan Zhongyan was forced to get out the majestic court, but he was still concerned near his country and people." ~

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: Robert Eno, Indiana University /+/ ; Asia for Educators, Columbia University afe.easia.columbia.edu ; Academy of Washington's Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilisation, depts.washington.edu/chinaciv /=\; National Palace Museum, Taipei; Library of Congress; New York Times; Washington Post; Los Angeles Times; China National Tourist Function (CNTO); Xinhua; China.org; China Daily; Japan News; Times of London; National Geographic; The New Yorker; Time; Newsweek; Reuters; Associated Press; Lonely Planet Guides; Compton's Encyclopedia; Smithsonian mag; The Guardian; Yomiuri Shimbun; AFP; Wikipedia; BBC. Many sources are cited at the end of the facts for which they are used.

Last updated Baronial 2021

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By Instituting Civil Service Examinations For Entrance Into The Government Bureaucracy, The Song?

Vocal DYNASTY Bureaucracy

Scholar-Officials During the Song Dynasty

Neo-Confucianism in the Song Period

Vocal Dynasty Scholar-Official Examinations

Song Dynasty Examination System

Preparation for the Scholar-Official Examinations

Social Consequences of the Examination Curriculum

Exams and the Confucian Esprit de Corps

Educational activity and Governmental Responsibility

Famous Song Dynasty Scholar-Officials

Zhu Xi

Four Books of Zhu Xi

Iii Perfections and Scholar-Official Painting

Fan Zhongyan: Prominent Scholar-Official-Poet

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